A Combination of Forms (part 1)

　　II.There have, since ancient times, been numerous types of vernacular dwellings in China, a vast, multinational country whose topography and climate pose many a problem. "Customs differ just three li away, regulations change a thousand li away." The patriarchal clan, geometry and local customs as well as climate, geographical conditions and national characteristics have all played a part in the design of vernacular dwellings, and produced totally different forms.

　　1. Vernacular Dwellings in Northeast China

　　The climate in Northeast China can be severely cold, so that vernacular dwellings are often positioned to receive as much sunlight as possible. In front of the main building there is often a large court to catch more sun. Such vernacular dwellings have strong local features making them different from dwellings inside Shanhaiguan Particularly on winter days, when the sky is snowy white and the endless snow covered land takes on a slightly blue hue, such dwellings, with their blazing stove fires, offer a blissful retreat from the cold.

　　Flat roofs are commonly used for the vernacular dwellings of this part of China. Rafters are laid over the beams, which are then covered by daubed straw or sorghum stalks, covered in turn by alkaline earth, lime soil etc. Parapets are sometimes added to three sides of the roof, and part of a small pitched roof at front projects forward like the head of a tiger, hence the name of tiger head house.

　　Adapted to withstand the strong winds indigenous of the area, such dwellings are a good example of the artistic results of such procedures, as well as of the desire of well-to-do families to embellish their homes. The parapets are often decorated with a variety of latticework and fine patterns.

　　The Koreans have for generations lived in the border area at the foot of the towering Changbai Mountain, earning their living from the cultivation of the expansive paddy fields. The style of the Koreans vernacular dwellings dates back to the time prior to the Tang Dynasty, and is similar to vernacular dwellings in Japan. Roofs are often of the four-pitch type and each house has a porch in front of it where footwear is discarded prior to entering the house. The one room serves both as a sitting room in the daytime and a bedroom at night, and the whole room can be used for sitting or lying. Here, an impression can be gained of the custom of sitting cross-legged, which prevailed in pre-Tang period. With thick brick walls or walls of unfired brick as protection against the bitter cold, the houses of the Koreans have a large fireplace and thin walls that in summer allow the warmth to penetrate more easily. The majority of these dwellings have no courts or encircling walls and social interchange among neighbors is as in a family.

　　2. Vernacular Dwellings in Jiangsu and Zhejiang

　　In contrast to the commodious vernacular dwellings in Northeast China, those in Jiangsu and Zhejiang are compact. Northern Zhejiang and southern Jiangsu take in the valley of Lake Tai. The climate is warm and humid, and although neither winter nor summer is extreme, the season of the successive rain is relatively long. Houses mostly face south or southeast. Wooden frames are used for load bearing, and the buildings are well-ventilated, and also well-imitated against the heat of summer, due to their high ridges and generous depth. As far as the layout is concerned, the majority of vernacular dwellings have a small patio and windows with low sills or long partition boards both at the front and back.

　　As construction of facades are concerned. As in other areas, the houses of better-off families, have symmetric plan layouts, high enclosing walls, gardens and ancestral halls, resulting in complicated and ambitious layouts with sections of varying importance and character. Regular beam frames are used in wooden frame structures, Buildings are large, built, as far as possible, of high-quality materials and enriched by luxurious ornamental details. Particularly noticeable are the fine treatment of edges and corners and the excellent quality of construction in general.

　　A view of the Yangtze River from the south from the vantage point of a bridge give a good indication of the prosperity of the town. The rippling reflections of the elegant waterside buildings and the small bridges crossing the slow-flowing river give the whole a quiet and contented atmosphere.

　　Vernacular dwellings in this region not only have an elegant outer appearance, but impress, too, by the quality and spatial composition of the interior. Interior walls are partitioned, allowing indoor space to be fully utilized.

　　3. Vernacular Dwellings in Fujian

　　Fujian lies in the hilly region of southeast China. It is a warm and humid mountainous area, cut through by deep valleys and rendered green by dense forests of pine, Chinese fir, cypress and camphor trees. Conditions are therefore favorable for building, and Xuanshan (overhung gable-end) roofs are widely used for vernacular dwellings. At the joint between zhengfang and erfang, perpendicular in layout, italics stepped descending joints (i.e. the mode of the "eagle" joining) are used, elaborate and flexible in design. Fire-sealing gables in vernacular dwellings in Fujian are varied, and italics combinations of xuanshan roofs and fire-sealing gables in particular, each different, are unique.

　　Vernacular dwellings in Fujian, for example those to be seen between Fuzhou and Xiamen, stand out on account of their size, variety and fine details. Noticeable, too, is the fact that they possess many of the characteristics of the Song Dynasty curved roof, with very few straight lines.

　　From the central bays on, the sub central bays and the end bays have their eaves successively raised. In the juzhe (raising-and-de-pressing) of the slopes of roofs, each step upwards is progressive, forming concave circular arcs, of rich variety.

　　In large vernacular dwellings in Fujian, the handling of groups of buildings in courtyards is particularly refined. The courtyard in front of the main building is the largest, the others being smaller to symbolize different categories of precedence. Much attention is paid to the shapes of courtyards to achieve variation and contrast, with square, longitudinal and lateral shapes being interlaced and partitioned. If conditions allow, the floors of courtyard buildings are sloped upwards from front to rear to add dignity, and buildings of the same group are sometimes joined in several sections if it is impossible to link them up on a straight axis due to topological or other reasons.

　　The most characteristic buildings in vernacular dwellings in Fujian are the tulou (earth building), square tulou to be found in the mountainous area of Yongding County in the southwestern corner of Fujian adjacent to Gangdong Province. Some are also to be seen in the counties of Nanjing and Longyan. The way the tulou were built is closely related to defense. The Hakka people had successively migrated southward since the West Jin Dynasty, moving from the middle reach of the Yellow River to such provinces as Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong. In times when state corruption was prevalent and bandits abounded, people scattered in the remote mountainous regions were compelled to live in groups according to clan for collective defense. Thus separate small houses evolved into large buildings for close dwelling and later into multi-storeyed high buildings. Square tulou are divided into wufenglou (five-phoenix building) and ordinary square tulou. A dwelling of the former type is usually composed of three tang and two lou. Three tang are xiatang, zhongtang and the main building located on the main axis running from north to south through the middle.

　　Two lou are two longitudinal rectangular buildings, called hengwu locally. In the case of square tulou, left and right are sym- metrical and the technique of a rise of level from front to back is also applied. Preference is also given to a topography sloping upwards from front to back. As far as its external appearance is concerned, the square tulou appears symmetric when seen from the side however its profile is asymmetrical and of uneven heights.

　　Some of the small wufenlou have no hengwu, but there is al- ways a main building of three or four storeyes with load-bearing earth walls. In the township of Fuling is an outstanding example of the employment of wufenglou to create an attractive urban scene. The clever combination of xieshan and xuanshan roofs, the interlacing of courtyards, the scattered placement of roofs and the use of those with nine ridges and large projecting eaves for special effect, create a setting that in the brilliance of its artistry must be considered a masterpiece. Typical characteristics of such building are regular configuration, orderly arrangement, distinction between major and minor sections and a general harmony.

　　The simplest square tulou are "O" in shape, the most complex of which in external design are those with four storeyes and subsidiary bulidings and parlors called cuo locally that are usually only single storeyed. The entrance gate is located on the central axis. Located precisely at the center of the subsidiary buildings, just where the entrance gate stands, is a zutang for worshipping one's ancestors. In front of the zutang is the hall, and in front of this again is where the ceremony of welcoming guests is performed.

　　Square tulou are dramatic in appearance. Roof heights are varied and the rugged external appearance of the earth walls makes each look like some wondrous castle.

　　Even more dramatic are the ring-formed tulou. As we now know, there are six circular tulou measuring over 70 meters in diameter as well as the Longjianlou in the township of Jinfeng in the county of Pinghe with a diameter of over 80 meters and the Ruxinglou in the county of Yongding with a diameter of only 11 meters. There are also circular tulou with layouts that are oval in plan.

　　Among the unit type circular tulou, the most outstanding is Eryilou in the village of Dadi in the township of Xiandu in Hua'an County. It was built in the 35th year of the reign of Qianlong (1770) and has a diameter of 73.4 meters. It is encircled by four rings. It has an outer wall 2.5 meters thick at ground level, making it a storeyed building with the thickest wall. The whole building is divided into 12 units partitioned with fire walls.

　　Of the circular tulou with inner through galleries, the most famous is Chengqilou in the village of Gaobei in Guzhu Township, Yongding County. This circular tulou was built in the reign of Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty (1662~1722). It has a diameter of 73 meters and is encircled by four rings, making it very rare. The outermost ring has 72 rooms on each storey and four common staircases. The second ring has 40 rooms. The third ring is single-storeyed with 32 rooms. The building at the center is a zutang.

　　出版：Springer Wien New York

　　ISBN-3-211-83008-1

　　2000年